PRINCIPLES OF TECHNICAL WRITING, PURPOSE OF TECHNICAL REPORTS, PREPARING A DOCUMENTATION PLAN
. Principles of Technical WritingIf you take a technical writing workshop, the materials will address numerous areas; some are very
specific while others are more general in nature. A good starting point is to look at six principles of
technical writing. Reviewing these basics can provide a great platform from which we can launch
forays into specific areas of interest and documentation.
1. Use Good Grammar
2. Write Concisely
3. Use the Active Voice
4. Use Positive Statements
5. Avoid Long Sentences
6. Punctuate CorrectlyPrinciple 1: Use Good GrammarYour readers expect technical documents to be written in Standard English. Certain grammatical
errors can actually cause your reader to misinterpret the information. However, because technical
documents must be precise and accurate, readers expect documents to be professional, polished,
and flawless.
One grammatical rule to adhere to is subject-verb agreement. Note the choice of verbs below:
One employee is absent.
Two employees are absent.
This subject-verb agreement is easy to make because in each sentence, the subject isobvious: employee in the first sentence agrees with is and employees in the second sentence
agrees with are. The real challenge is when the subject is not as obvious. In the following
sentences, which verb would you select?
Either of the levers is clearly marked.
Either of the levers are clearly marked?
You must decide if the subject is either of levers. If you selected either as the subject and is as the
verb, you made the correct choice. A list of indefinite pronouns that are always singular is listed
below:Each, either, everybody, everyone, neither, one, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, no one,
nobody
The following indefinite pronouns are always plural:Both, few, many, severalJust to keep your life interesting, the following pronouns can be either singular or plural.All, more, most, none, some
You may wonder how some pronouns can be both singular and plural. Review the following
examples:
Some of the information is inaccurate.
Some of the figures are inaccurate.
If grammar is a weak area for you, purchase and use a good reference book.Principle 2: Writing ConciselyIn technical writing, clarity and brevity is your goal. Why take 32 words to express what could be
stated in 14 or 15? The dictates of effective technical writing suggest that the average length for a
sentence is 15-20 words. How do you achieve clarity and conciseness?
One of the best ways is to look for multiword phrases that can be replaced by one or two words.
Try replacing the multiword phrases below with a word or two.
A large number of ________________
Prior to that time ________________
In the process of tabulating ________________
As shown in table 3 ________________
Exhibits the ability ________________
Similarly, when you streamline sentences, your readers don't have to wade through extra
verbiage. How would you streamline the sentence below?
"To obtain maximum performance from your computer, you should endeavour to follow the
maintenance program furnished in the manual accompanying your computer."
Experts have found that there are two ways we lose our readers: using words with which they are
unfamiliar and overly long sentences. By replacing wordy phrases with shorter ones and by
pruning the deadwood from sentences, you are doing your readers a favor.
NOTE: Answers: many, before, when tabulating, table 3 shows, can
To enhance your computer's performance, follow the manual's maintenance program.Principle 3: Using the Active VoiceImperative sentences, or command sentences, are written in the active voice. The active voice is
more natural to people when they speak, but technical writers often turn to the passive voice
when writing technical documents. One of the main reasons you should use the active voice
rather than the passive in technical writing is the active voice more closely resembles the way
people remember and process information.Compare the following sentences:Staff hours are calculated by the manager on the actual work load.
The manager calculates staff hours on the actual work load.
In the active voice sentence, the subject acts. In the passive voice sentence, something is done to
the subject.
Another reason to avoid the passive voice sentence is you run the risk of omitting the doer of the
action. Note the absence of the "doer" in the following sentence:
Documented practical examinations will be given for backhoes of the same type with different
operating characteristics.
Your reader will probably wonder who will give the practical examinations. If the technical writer
had used the active voice, the "doer" would be clear.
Principle 4: Using Positive StatementsTechnical writers should word instructions as positive statements. Whenever possible, phrase
commands in a positive manner. Compare the following:Negative: Do not close the valve.
Positive: Leave the valve open.Telling your readers what NOT to do is a negative statement. It is also abstract rather than
concrete. Your readers have to take time to think about what is true (positive) so they can
determine what is NOT true (negative).
One exception to this rule is when a negative statement is clearer than a positive one. Keep in
mind studies show it is almost 50% harder for your readers to understand the meaning when you
use negatives.Principle 5: Avoiding Long SentencesShort sentences are easier to understand than long sentences. For this reason, it is best to write
your technical documents in short sentences. If you are asking your readers to perform several
actions, begin the step with an active verb. This highlights the action itself. Compare the following
sentences:Example of a sentence with multiple steps within the sentence:For Forte applications, create an empty workspace, populate it with application source code, and
compile the workspace.Example of a sentence with multiple steps set apart:For Forte applications, perform the following steps: Create an empty workspace. Populate it with application source code. Compile the workspace.
Another tip when separating steps into distinct bullet points is to make sure that the action verbs
in each bulleted item are in the same tense. For example, if the first step was worded, "Creating
an empty workspace," then the next bullet would be, "Populating it with application source
code ," and the third bullet point would be, "Compiling the workspace ."Principle 6: Using Standard PunctuationYour readers expect standard punctuation when they read your documents. Complicated or
"creative" punctuation will confuse them. One suggestion is to select syntax that minimizes the
need for punctuation. You may wish to divide compound or complex sentences into shorter
sentences to avoid excessive or confusing punctuation.
One example of this is deciding where to place your commas, periods, colons, and semicolons
when using quotation marks. Commas and periods always go inside the closing quotation mark.
Examples:
We are "struggling young artists," but we hope to become successful.
Most corporations adopt the belief, "the customer is always right."
On the other hand, semicolons and colons are always placed outside the quotation marks.Examples:
These actors can deliver "box office hits": Tom Cruise, Tom Hanks, and Johnny Depp.
Look in the manual under "text messaging"; the directions are very clear.Choosing a journalDifferent journals cover different subject areas and regions. If, so far, you have just published in a
national journal, aim for a regional or international journal. Publishing in journals is also
challenging – articles must follow strict guidelines and the rejection rate can be high.How to publishPublishing one’s work is a challenge faced by every author, but it becomes easier with each new
publication. Most journals will provide “instructions for contributors” on how to publish in that
journal. These must be followed to the last detail. This includes the layout and format of both the
body and references of your article.Editors’ advice on how to get work published:■ Study the journal. The first step is to know the journal and the kinds of articles it publishes.■ Use good English. Reviewers often reject papers because the grammar is bad, rather than on the
basis of the content.■ Be realistic. Be aware of the value of your results but don’t over-interpret them.■Tell a coherent (understandable) story, and don’t make sweeping conclusions if you don’t have
the results to support them.■ Make sure the title matches the content.■ Read lots of papers and learn from them.Most common problems with scientific papers■ The paper is too long.■ The writing and figures are not clear.■ Its subject matter is not suitable for the journal.■ It is not well structured.■ The author has not explained the general interest of the specific issues.■ The author assumes too much specific knowledge from the reader.The ABC of writing style Be Accurate: Science is a precise discipline. Your descriptions or results may be used by others
who need to know they are reliable. Be Brief: Use only as many words as you need – remove or replace words that are repeated or
do not add anything useful. Be Clear: You will not be there to explain to the reader what you mean. If you have to read a
sentence again in order to understand it, rewrite it. Better still, give your work to others to
read to see if it makes sense to them.
Planning your paragraphsThis is the key to writing logical, structured reports: Start with generalities and then move towards more specific ideas. There should be an obvious logical connection between paragraphs. There should be one main or theme point per paragraph; if the paragraph contains too many
themes, create a new paragraph or paragraphs.Language
1. Use plain words Impress the reader with your project, not your knowledge of the dictionary. Avoid jargon and abbreviations as they may not be widely known.2. Avoid long sentences Long sentences are hard to follow. Shorter sentences help you write concisely.3. Be concise This keeps your writing from being swamped with unnecessary words. Make your writing clear and therefore easy to follow. All journals have strict word limits!4.Grammar Remember to use the same tense throughout your paper. Most problems occur in long, complex sentences – a good reason to keep them short. Simple
writing is often easier to follow than writing that uses complex structures.5. Full information transfer Each sentence should give you all the information you need.6. Make it look good Get rid of all typing and spelling errors; if your writing looks careless, people may not trust the
accuracy of your work.7. Be consistent Use the same definitions throughout – if you introduce a definition in the methods, use the
same term in the results and discussion.In summary■ Concentrate on communicating your work and your ideas.■ Structure your writing by planning your paragraphs.■ Be concise – use only as many words as you need and no more.■ Even experienced scientists give drafts of their papers to colleagues to comment on and point
out bits that are unclear. Your final report will be much better if you do this as well.II. Purpose of Technical WritingResearch work is incomplete unless the results are disseminated to the wider community.
Publishing is important for yourself, your organization, your scientific colleagues and your funders.
It improves your career, since your work will be seen as good quality and reliable. Scientific
research articles provide a method for scientists to communicate with other scientists about the
results of their research. A well-written scientific paper explains the scientist's motivation for
doing an experiment, the experimental design and execution, and the meaning of the results.
Scientific papers are written in a style that is exceedingly clear and concise.Why should you publish?1. It is a good principle – almost a duty – to make results accessible. It gives the scientific community a chance to find out about your work. It is a way of “paying back” those who fund you.
2. It improves your writing and analytical skills. You will attract useful comments and input that you may not have thought of. This will help
your ideas progress and improve your future work.
3. It gets you and your work known in the wider scientific and conservation community. Good for your career Good for your organizationIII. Various Forms of Scientific WritingsWhat avenues of communication do scientists have open to them in order to deliver information?
For research communication, these include: – research journals;– research reviews;– short
communications;– conference papers and posters;– theses;– books and book chapters;– annual
reports;– working papers;– newsletters;– project proposals and reports;– websites;– blogs and
discussion groups. Each of these has specific uses in certain situations.1. Research journals: The purpose of a research journal is to publish scientific papers that
communicate new and original information to other scientists. Every journal has its own definition,
but almost all of them centre on the phrase ‘original research’. That means research that has not
been done or published before. The research paper takes a hypothesis and tests it by
experimental methods in order to reach conclusions. Research journals are the most common
organ of communication in science.2. Research reviews: The review is a special type of scientific article that, in many ways, is like an
extended version of the discussion section of a research paper. An essential feature of a review is
that the reader is led to the frontiers of science in the area covered. The review summarizes all
aspects of a particular field; it also develops logical arguments until they end in new hypotheses,
and speculations on how they may be tested. It leads to new areas of research, which must be
testable and must be supported by facts – but the review is not a catalogue of facts. Rather, it
interprets existing facts and theories within a particular field, often with the intention of
explaining that field to other workers in closely allied fields of investigation.3. Short communications: These are preliminary results of a project, perhaps one season’s results,
or results that are not of major significance but are nevertheless interesting. The exact nature of
these communications will vary with the target publication.4. Conference papers and posters: Conferences offer scientists an opportunity to present results
of research that is still at a preliminary stage, but that contains interesting developments. Because
time is limited during a conference session, papers that are presented orally at conferences are
necessarily short. They are usually confined to a brief presentation of the methods and, more
importantly, the results, which may be preliminary, and several clearly stated points brought out
in the discussion. Speculation can be introduced; interpretation is by far the most important area
to have impact. The version presented for publication can be more thorough. Conference
organisers accept or reject papers based on an abstract that the author submits. Reviewers
develop a list of papers and allocate them to different sections of the conference. Usually there
are many more papers submitted than can be read, so organisers offers authors of less significant,
but still interesting, papers the chance to present a piece of work as a poster. Authors have wall
space, usually about 1 × 1.5 metres, on which to present their findings, and are given an
opportunity to discuss their work with passing scientists.5. Theses: The thesis is written evidence of sustained research, testing a particular hypothesis in a
novel area, done over a considerable period, usually 5 or 6 years. The overriding characteristic of a
thesis is its length. It generally contains an extensive review of the literature, as well as the results
of a number of experiments, all aimed at testing a unifying hypothesis. Some of the material may
already have been published in a series of research papers during the course of the research.6. Books and book chapters: The book chapter is a synthesis of knowledge and information about
a particular subject. It rarely has a fundamental hypothesis. It is more likely to form one part of an
overall contents list that, taken together, exhaustively describes a clearly defined aspect of one
field of science.7. Annual reports: Annual reports contain straightforward descriptions of work that has been
done during a year or 12-month period. The intention is not so much to prove a hypothesis, rather
to describe activities, justify budget expenditure in terms of research undertaken, and
demonstrates impact to attract more funding. The traditional approach to annual reports was to
describe all activities of all the programmes of an institution. This approach is useful to give an
overall idea of the institution’s work, and to form a historical record. However, such reports can be
long and very detailed. There is a tendency more recently for annual reports to concentrate on
one aspect of the institution’s work, or to select the areas of work that have had most impact.8. Working papers: A working paper or technical report may be a preliminary report of a piece of
research that is interesting, but suitable or intended for peer-reviewed publication. In many cases,
a working paper can be developed later, with the addition of more material, into a scientific paper.
Often authors may release working papers to share ideas about a topic or to elicit feedback before
submitting to a peer-reviewed conference or academic journal.9. Newsletters: The purpose of a newsletter is to communicate quickly facts that are of interest to
its readers. Thus the content of any contribution is basically factual, with little emphasis on
justification or methodology. Usually having a more general readership, newsletters should never
be regarded a substitute for the true publication of research results.10. Project proposals and reports: A project proposal represents the justification for a programme
of work, with the aim of producing measurable outputs that will demonstrably reach a clearly
defined objective. Like a research paper, it starts out with a hypothesis that has led to a proposed
course of action and a programme of research designed to test the concept.11. Websites: Most research institutions now have a website, where they present their most upto-date or significant results, describe the institution and its programmes of research, and list its
staff. Often there is a list of publications, with some sites offering the possibility of downloading
copies of institutional publications, working papers, etc. Websites have a potentially huge
audience with different levels of expertise, and so offer scientists an opportunity to publicize the
results and impact of their research to groups of people different from the usual scientists.12. Blogs and discussion groups: A blog (a contraction of the term ‘web log’) is a type of website,
usually maintained by an individual, with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or
other material such as graphics or video. Blogs are personal, representing the views of the writer,
and so offer scientists a chance to put forward their own ideas, free of the constraints of the
institution they are working within. Discussion groups are electronic meeting places, where groups
of people with a common interest can share their views in a continuing discussion.BIBLIOGRAPHY – Definition1. A complete or selective list of works compiled upon some common principle, as authorship,
subject, place of publication, or printer.
2. A list of source materials that are used or consulted in the preparation of a work or that are
referred to in the text.
3. A branch of library science dealing with the history, physical description, comparison, and
classification of books and other works.References: Why Helps readers to refer to cited materials Readers can get information for their own research or other purposes Readers, reviewers, and editors can check the author’s use of the cited materialsThree Main Systems
A. Harvard System (author-year or name & year system)
Ex: Rice cultivation may be the largest anthropogenic source of CH4 emission (Hogan et al., 1991).B. Alphabet-Number System (Vancouver system)
Ex: Hogan et al. (7) reported that rice cultivation may be the largest anthropogenic source of
methane emission.C. Citation Order System (Numbering references as they appear)
Ex: Rice cultivation may be the largest anthropogenic source of CH4 emission (1).
Writing Science for Non-SpecialistsV. BalasubramanianWho are they?• Extension and development staff• Farmers• Business people• News media• General public• Policy makers• Donors• Teachers, students• Children• Visitors
Where do they Spend Time?• Their Profile?• Why Publications for Non-specialistsScientists vs.Non-specialists• Scientists: generally good in conveying their ideas to their peers• Non-specialists cannot understand, but many also don’t want to know much of the
specialist’s writing• Difficult, but not impossible to communicate with non-specialists• Communication specialists can help you develop effective communications for nonspecialistsWriting for Non-specialists• Keep It Simple and Short (KISS)– Simple words: plain, familiar, easy-to-recognize words– Simple, short sentences: one sentence, one thought– Short paragraphs: one paragraph, one idea• Make It Interesting (MII)– Interesting, attractive to readersEffective communication to Non-specialists• Audience• A clear message• Visuals to enhance/support the message• AttractiveAudience• Who are your readers?• Difficult to reach all kinds of non-specialists with a single publication
for a message
• Three types of materials for students, extension staff, farmers• What do they know already?• Most difficult to find out what your audience know already
- Dry your rice in the sun! (Anything new?)
- A better way to dry your rice in the sun!• Explain cause and effect for certain messages• Message• A clear message: know clearly what is to be communicated• Remember the message and purpose all the time when developing the materialsMessage: How Much to Give• Not necessary to explain everything to non-specialists• Give only the key points they need to know• Explain why the message is important to them• Show how they can benefit from the knowledgeMessage: Information• Too much info: boring or repelling• Too little info: poor communication• Enough info: interesting, educative, or convincingMessage: Info Overloading• Info is a lot like food- too big a bite is hard to swallow
- small bites are easier to chew and absorb• Large documents: books, booklets, journals, articles• Short documents: leaflets, pamphlets, posters, pocket guides• A large book or a series short pamphlets?
Message: Visual Support• Select appropriate visuals• Use them to enhance your message• Attractive visuals draw readers’ attention to the messageMessage: Interesting and Attractive• Effective communication
- looks interesting and is attractive to readers
- explains why the message is important
- shows how it can help or benefit readers• Select forms and designs attractive to target readers
- a one-page formal briefing for a policy-maker
- a comic book format for extension publications
- a drama format for radio broadcasts (edutainment)Message: Easy to Understand
• Language- Local language: Extension posters for farmers
- National language: National technical reports
- English: Int. publications• Words- Use common words that readers understand easily• Style
- A simple, friendly, conversational style• Vocabulary- Select words that are easy to recognize, understand
- Use local units of measurementMessage: Informative or Emotional?• Words carry subtle emotion: use them carefully• A message with some emotion is more effective than a pure informative message• Cultural: avoid sensitive or offensive words• Social: avoid socially unacceptable wordsMessage: Appropriateness• Field test the draft publication with a sample of intended readers• Revise or modify based on feedback from field testing• Audience response to previous publications
- Poor response: why?
- Good response: why?Help Non-specialists Understand
• Explain difficult terms or words with familiar words• Use easy-to-understand examples to give life to your message• Keep the statistics simple and minimum and use them in proper context• Good illustrations for more direct and more clear communication of ideas• Relate to people– bring your ideas to the level of people– explain how your ideas affect them• Use quotations– they are convincing– they relate to great personalities familiar to your readersReader’s Interest: Attract & Maintain• All publications compete with each other for the targeted readers’ attention• There is a severe competition among media: print, radio, TV, movies, music, internet, etc.• Capture reader’s attention
– interesting or unusual design– powerful or attractive illustration– interesting title– effective opening paragraph: strong openings are valuable in newsletters, extension
leaflets, policy briefings• Appeal to readers’ basic interests– more income, more food for family, better health & fitness, less work and more
leisure, more prestige• Appeal to readers’ curiosity– about other people, the world around them, or problems or unexpected events
that affect them• Make an effective opening– The first words are crucial to attract readers’ attention– Use a picture, an anecdote, a question, a quotation, a background, a stunning
contrast, or a surprise related to the main message– Delete weak openings• Make sure the opening is supported by the facts
Making Effective Title• Read the document, understand well, search for the most important idea for use in title• Use the main message in one short, interesting sentence/phrase as title• Introduce variety in titles• Revise the title until it is sharp and striking• Check the title is correct with a clear meaning• Use upper and lower case in title for greater readabilityNon-specialists: Types of Publications• Manuals for teachers or extension staff• Popular magazines• Newsletters• Folders/Leaflets/Pamphlets• Posters• Comic books• Press releases & Interviews• Popular articles for newspapers• Talks on radio or TV• On-line articles or extension videosWriting for Non-specialists
Newsletters• Published by research institutions to– convey information to readers
– promote the public image of the organization• It is more informal and more personal meant for chosen clients• Generally 4 to 16 pages long (size A4)• It gives normally positive informationPlanning a Newsletter• Establish the editorial purpose and policy– goals, intended readers, language, nature of contents– editorial control (by editor or head of institution)– frequency of publication, size and number of pages, size of circulation, methods of
distribution, and schedules• Make sure the plan of the newsletter is accepted and approved by the management and
the board• Develop an advisory board for consultation• Make a budget estimate and secure funds• Define the role and responsibilities of the editorPrepare a distribution plan with a mailing list:• Scientists, extension staff, university staff & students• Visitors, business people• Newspaper, radio, TV• Related national and international organizations• Policymakers• Funding agencies• Board of trustees• Documentation centers• Bookstores• Design: a layout for each issue or a standard layout• Review to measure successes– annual membership survey– mechanism for feedback– order forms for publications– registration forms for conferences– job openings– ad space– letters to editor– contests, games– local news itemsEditing a Newsletter• A good newsletter is like a small magazine• Edit (for non-specialists) to maintain quality and appeal to readers
• Showcase the institute’s activities and all personalities (not the head only) who make the
institution great• Interact with scientists and collaborators, visit field experiments and farmers’ days to find
interesting stories to report• Create a unique personality for the newsletter with interesting varieties in each issue• Plan and cover events in advance• Have a stockpile of “insurance” materials to replace a planned story not arrived on time• Edit tightly and print short, interesting articles• Report only the most important points of speeches or press releases• Interview personalities and report• Use photographs for effect (photo of the week)• Introduce humor to attract readers• Provide basic info: Name & address of the institution & editor, frequency of publication,
issue # & date, etc.Interviewing• A good interview is a friendly conversation• Do the homework– Tell in advance to the person what is to be discussed, why it is important, & how it
will be used– Arrange the meeting in advance– Do background research to ask right questions and to avoid errors– Prepare a list of topics or questions in advance to control the interview• Don’t ask questions– that elicit “yes” or “no” answer– on things that you should know (name of person)– that are too general or too long• Ask questions to get the person talk on issues• Organize questions in a logical way for easy flow of conversation• GOSS: Goals, Obstacles, Solutions, StartAt the Interview• Arrive on time and dress appropriately• Be relaxed and friendly• Start with easy questions to get the person talking freely• Listen: Don’t talk more than necessary, don’t interrupt, don’t argue• Encourage the person to talk: nod your head, agree, smile, laugh only when appropriate• Keep a friendly eye contact• Allow passes for the person to say something more• Probe more with follow-up questions until you get the info you want• Look for examples or analogies and ask for them
• Be alert and pursue the topic to get new info• Make discreet notes and write down good quotes• Use tape recorder only when needed to record exact quotations or if the subject is
controversial• At the end:– Ask if the person wants to talk about anything else– At the end of the allotted time, offer to leave even if you’re not finished. The
person may agree to continue talkingAfter the Interview• Read your notes at once, and expand them for reporting• Write the story ASAP (when everything is fresh)• Use quotations carefully– As a signpost for change– To emphasize a point– To express judgment on an issue– To enhance your report• Check the facts carefully, and if necessary with the person interviewedFolders(Pamphlets, Brochures)• A single-sheet publication folded 2 to 4 times• An effective folder is– Personal: directed to one reader– Focused: limited to one clear message– Attractive to capture readers’ attention– Simple: easy to understand at a single reading– Concise: to the point, and no irrelevant ideas– Instructive: clear on what action to take• Make each panel an effective unit on its own• Make the cover panel attractive to lure readers• First panel: Start by showing how the message can help people• Make the title attractive and compelling to read: e.g. “Reduce your cost and increase your
profit”• Use font size 36 or larger for title• Use an attractive illustration, preferably people doing something• Later panels: Continue providing related info to the readers’ interest– About the institution, people, work, etc.– One panel with address for returning with required info• Don’t crowd the folder and leave some space empty• Use headlines or symbols to break up the text• Include one or two illustrations to add impact
• Repeat the main message at the end to reinforce action• Give the contact address with Tel # and e-mail• Add the date of printing of the folder in a cornerExtension Posters• A piece of paper or cardboard with only a few words, with or w/o an illustration• It conveys a quick simple message to an audience• It is mounted in a right place for repeated viewing by an intended audience• Advantages:– A good poster at the right place commands attention– Presents its message over and over every day– Reinforces other messages in a communication program– Reaches large and small, specialized and general audience– Can be replaced easily with a new message when needed• Make message brief, direct, and in large type for easy viewing & quick absorption• Simplest, most effective posters encourage action:– “Fight drugs”; “Stop smoking”; “Beware of children”• Inspirational or “image” posters are a waste of money• Posters with more words– Put in places where people sit or stand around– Still the message may be read fully, but not be absorbed• One short, simple message in large type: a call to action• An element of surprise to catch attention• A simple illustration to attract the eye to the message• The name of the sponsoring organization• Lots of empty spaces, clustered posters loose attention• Strong colors• An additional brief message supporting the main messageExtension Poster: Planning• Decide on the purpose, include the call to action• Types: a simple, short message or a message with many words (no in-between type)• Consider readers’ educational level, age, location, numbers• Large type and large illustration for easy viewing from 5 m away• Use few, simple, plain words: Don’t put words on a picture• A simple, familiar & colorful illustration to reinforce the message– red light for danger; a dramatic close up of people, avoid scenery; strong color or
B&W combinationExtension Posters: How?• Make sketch of the proposed layout• Cut pieces of colored paper the size and shapes of text box and illustration
– move them around until you get a satisfactory arrangement• Make sure the reader’s eye will move easily from one element to another• Keep it simpleExtension Posters: Placement• In many different locations - frequent viewing• At eye level• Where there is clear space• Where the light is good• Where many people pass or gather• Where material is changed often enough to encourage people to look at it frequently• Change posters every few weeks• Get feedback and act on it to improvePress Releases• PA produces press releases for media• Too many releases: media resistance• Make interesting releases• Types:– A feature on an ongoing activity, not time-bound– News on specific event for timely publication• Good headline for each story• Attractive first sentence to capture reader’s attention• Get to the point right away to give the news• First paragraph– Who? What? Where? When? & How?– Main facts of the story or summaryPress Releases: Tips for Writing• Important facts first, then details later– if cut from the bottom, you don’t loose facts• Find a local angle for your story– preferred by local media• Be accurate• Try to be objective and keep to facts– no praise or flattering• Short sentences & short paragraphs• Supply photographs if neededPress Releases: Writing Format• Double-spaced with wide margins• Make it clear the doc is a release• Include the contact address and Tel #
• Date for news release: “For immediate release”• Identify each page with a page # and a short identifying phrase• Size: Limit to two typed pages– If more space is needed, consider a separate “Background” release, tied to the main
release• Get media editor’s feedback to improve further
. Principles of Technical WritingIf you take a technical writing workshop, the materials will address numerous areas; some are very
specific while others are more general in nature. A good starting point is to look at six principles of
technical writing. Reviewing these basics can provide a great platform from which we can launch
forays into specific areas of interest and documentation.
1. Use Good Grammar
2. Write Concisely
3. Use the Active Voice
4. Use Positive Statements
5. Avoid Long Sentences
6. Punctuate CorrectlyPrinciple 1: Use Good GrammarYour readers expect technical documents to be written in Standard English. Certain grammatical
errors can actually cause your reader to misinterpret the information. However, because technical
documents must be precise and accurate, readers expect documents to be professional, polished,
and flawless.
One grammatical rule to adhere to is subject-verb agreement. Note the choice of verbs below:
One employee is absent.
Two employees are absent.
This subject-verb agreement is easy to make because in each sentence, the subject isobvious: employee in the first sentence agrees with is and employees in the second sentence
agrees with are. The real challenge is when the subject is not as obvious. In the following
sentences, which verb would you select?
Either of the levers is clearly marked.
Either of the levers are clearly marked?
You must decide if the subject is either of levers. If you selected either as the subject and is as the
verb, you made the correct choice. A list of indefinite pronouns that are always singular is listed
below:Each, either, everybody, everyone, neither, one, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, no one,
nobody
The following indefinite pronouns are always plural:Both, few, many, severalJust to keep your life interesting, the following pronouns can be either singular or plural.All, more, most, none, some
You may wonder how some pronouns can be both singular and plural. Review the following
examples:
Some of the information is inaccurate.
Some of the figures are inaccurate.
If grammar is a weak area for you, purchase and use a good reference book.Principle 2: Writing ConciselyIn technical writing, clarity and brevity is your goal. Why take 32 words to express what could be
stated in 14 or 15? The dictates of effective technical writing suggest that the average length for a
sentence is 15-20 words. How do you achieve clarity and conciseness?
One of the best ways is to look for multiword phrases that can be replaced by one or two words.
Try replacing the multiword phrases below with a word or two.
A large number of ________________
Prior to that time ________________
In the process of tabulating ________________
As shown in table 3 ________________
Exhibits the ability ________________
Similarly, when you streamline sentences, your readers don't have to wade through extra
verbiage. How would you streamline the sentence below?
"To obtain maximum performance from your computer, you should endeavour to follow the
maintenance program furnished in the manual accompanying your computer."
Experts have found that there are two ways we lose our readers: using words with which they are
unfamiliar and overly long sentences. By replacing wordy phrases with shorter ones and by
pruning the deadwood from sentences, you are doing your readers a favor.
NOTE: Answers: many, before, when tabulating, table 3 shows, can
To enhance your computer's performance, follow the manual's maintenance program.Principle 3: Using the Active VoiceImperative sentences, or command sentences, are written in the active voice. The active voice is
more natural to people when they speak, but technical writers often turn to the passive voice
when writing technical documents. One of the main reasons you should use the active voice
rather than the passive in technical writing is the active voice more closely resembles the way
people remember and process information.Compare the following sentences:Staff hours are calculated by the manager on the actual work load.
The manager calculates staff hours on the actual work load.
In the active voice sentence, the subject acts. In the passive voice sentence, something is done to
the subject.
Another reason to avoid the passive voice sentence is you run the risk of omitting the doer of the
action. Note the absence of the "doer" in the following sentence:
Documented practical examinations will be given for backhoes of the same type with different
operating characteristics.
Your reader will probably wonder who will give the practical examinations. If the technical writer
had used the active voice, the "doer" would be clear.
Principle 4: Using Positive StatementsTechnical writers should word instructions as positive statements. Whenever possible, phrase
commands in a positive manner. Compare the following:Negative: Do not close the valve.
Positive: Leave the valve open.Telling your readers what NOT to do is a negative statement. It is also abstract rather than
concrete. Your readers have to take time to think about what is true (positive) so they can
determine what is NOT true (negative).
One exception to this rule is when a negative statement is clearer than a positive one. Keep in
mind studies show it is almost 50% harder for your readers to understand the meaning when you
use negatives.Principle 5: Avoiding Long SentencesShort sentences are easier to understand than long sentences. For this reason, it is best to write
your technical documents in short sentences. If you are asking your readers to perform several
actions, begin the step with an active verb. This highlights the action itself. Compare the following
sentences:Example of a sentence with multiple steps within the sentence:For Forte applications, create an empty workspace, populate it with application source code, and
compile the workspace.Example of a sentence with multiple steps set apart:For Forte applications, perform the following steps: Create an empty workspace. Populate it with application source code. Compile the workspace.
Another tip when separating steps into distinct bullet points is to make sure that the action verbs
in each bulleted item are in the same tense. For example, if the first step was worded, "Creating
an empty workspace," then the next bullet would be, "Populating it with application source
code ," and the third bullet point would be, "Compiling the workspace ."Principle 6: Using Standard PunctuationYour readers expect standard punctuation when they read your documents. Complicated or
"creative" punctuation will confuse them. One suggestion is to select syntax that minimizes the
need for punctuation. You may wish to divide compound or complex sentences into shorter
sentences to avoid excessive or confusing punctuation.
One example of this is deciding where to place your commas, periods, colons, and semicolons
when using quotation marks. Commas and periods always go inside the closing quotation mark.
Examples:
We are "struggling young artists," but we hope to become successful.
Most corporations adopt the belief, "the customer is always right."
On the other hand, semicolons and colons are always placed outside the quotation marks.Examples:
These actors can deliver "box office hits": Tom Cruise, Tom Hanks, and Johnny Depp.
Look in the manual under "text messaging"; the directions are very clear.Choosing a journalDifferent journals cover different subject areas and regions. If, so far, you have just published in a
national journal, aim for a regional or international journal. Publishing in journals is also
challenging – articles must follow strict guidelines and the rejection rate can be high.How to publishPublishing one’s work is a challenge faced by every author, but it becomes easier with each new
publication. Most journals will provide “instructions for contributors” on how to publish in that
journal. These must be followed to the last detail. This includes the layout and format of both the
body and references of your article.Editors’ advice on how to get work published:■ Study the journal. The first step is to know the journal and the kinds of articles it publishes.■ Use good English. Reviewers often reject papers because the grammar is bad, rather than on the
basis of the content.■ Be realistic. Be aware of the value of your results but don’t over-interpret them.■Tell a coherent (understandable) story, and don’t make sweeping conclusions if you don’t have
the results to support them.■ Make sure the title matches the content.■ Read lots of papers and learn from them.Most common problems with scientific papers■ The paper is too long.■ The writing and figures are not clear.■ Its subject matter is not suitable for the journal.■ It is not well structured.■ The author has not explained the general interest of the specific issues.■ The author assumes too much specific knowledge from the reader.The ABC of writing style Be Accurate: Science is a precise discipline. Your descriptions or results may be used by others
who need to know they are reliable. Be Brief: Use only as many words as you need – remove or replace words that are repeated or
do not add anything useful. Be Clear: You will not be there to explain to the reader what you mean. If you have to read a
sentence again in order to understand it, rewrite it. Better still, give your work to others to
read to see if it makes sense to them.
Planning your paragraphsThis is the key to writing logical, structured reports: Start with generalities and then move towards more specific ideas. There should be an obvious logical connection between paragraphs. There should be one main or theme point per paragraph; if the paragraph contains too many
themes, create a new paragraph or paragraphs.Language
1. Use plain words Impress the reader with your project, not your knowledge of the dictionary. Avoid jargon and abbreviations as they may not be widely known.2. Avoid long sentences Long sentences are hard to follow. Shorter sentences help you write concisely.3. Be concise This keeps your writing from being swamped with unnecessary words. Make your writing clear and therefore easy to follow. All journals have strict word limits!4.Grammar Remember to use the same tense throughout your paper. Most problems occur in long, complex sentences – a good reason to keep them short. Simple
writing is often easier to follow than writing that uses complex structures.5. Full information transfer Each sentence should give you all the information you need.6. Make it look good Get rid of all typing and spelling errors; if your writing looks careless, people may not trust the
accuracy of your work.7. Be consistent Use the same definitions throughout – if you introduce a definition in the methods, use the
same term in the results and discussion.In summary■ Concentrate on communicating your work and your ideas.■ Structure your writing by planning your paragraphs.■ Be concise – use only as many words as you need and no more.■ Even experienced scientists give drafts of their papers to colleagues to comment on and point
out bits that are unclear. Your final report will be much better if you do this as well.II. Purpose of Technical WritingResearch work is incomplete unless the results are disseminated to the wider community.
Publishing is important for yourself, your organization, your scientific colleagues and your funders.
It improves your career, since your work will be seen as good quality and reliable. Scientific
research articles provide a method for scientists to communicate with other scientists about the
results of their research. A well-written scientific paper explains the scientist's motivation for
doing an experiment, the experimental design and execution, and the meaning of the results.
Scientific papers are written in a style that is exceedingly clear and concise.Why should you publish?1. It is a good principle – almost a duty – to make results accessible. It gives the scientific community a chance to find out about your work. It is a way of “paying back” those who fund you.
2. It improves your writing and analytical skills. You will attract useful comments and input that you may not have thought of. This will help
your ideas progress and improve your future work.
3. It gets you and your work known in the wider scientific and conservation community. Good for your career Good for your organizationIII. Various Forms of Scientific WritingsWhat avenues of communication do scientists have open to them in order to deliver information?
For research communication, these include: – research journals;– research reviews;– short
communications;– conference papers and posters;– theses;– books and book chapters;– annual
reports;– working papers;– newsletters;– project proposals and reports;– websites;– blogs and
discussion groups. Each of these has specific uses in certain situations.1. Research journals: The purpose of a research journal is to publish scientific papers that
communicate new and original information to other scientists. Every journal has its own definition,
but almost all of them centre on the phrase ‘original research’. That means research that has not
been done or published before. The research paper takes a hypothesis and tests it by
experimental methods in order to reach conclusions. Research journals are the most common
organ of communication in science.2. Research reviews: The review is a special type of scientific article that, in many ways, is like an
extended version of the discussion section of a research paper. An essential feature of a review is
that the reader is led to the frontiers of science in the area covered. The review summarizes all
aspects of a particular field; it also develops logical arguments until they end in new hypotheses,
and speculations on how they may be tested. It leads to new areas of research, which must be
testable and must be supported by facts – but the review is not a catalogue of facts. Rather, it
interprets existing facts and theories within a particular field, often with the intention of
explaining that field to other workers in closely allied fields of investigation.3. Short communications: These are preliminary results of a project, perhaps one season’s results,
or results that are not of major significance but are nevertheless interesting. The exact nature of
these communications will vary with the target publication.4. Conference papers and posters: Conferences offer scientists an opportunity to present results
of research that is still at a preliminary stage, but that contains interesting developments. Because
time is limited during a conference session, papers that are presented orally at conferences are
necessarily short. They are usually confined to a brief presentation of the methods and, more
importantly, the results, which may be preliminary, and several clearly stated points brought out
in the discussion. Speculation can be introduced; interpretation is by far the most important area
to have impact. The version presented for publication can be more thorough. Conference
organisers accept or reject papers based on an abstract that the author submits. Reviewers
develop a list of papers and allocate them to different sections of the conference. Usually there
are many more papers submitted than can be read, so organisers offers authors of less significant,
but still interesting, papers the chance to present a piece of work as a poster. Authors have wall
space, usually about 1 × 1.5 metres, on which to present their findings, and are given an
opportunity to discuss their work with passing scientists.5. Theses: The thesis is written evidence of sustained research, testing a particular hypothesis in a
novel area, done over a considerable period, usually 5 or 6 years. The overriding characteristic of a
thesis is its length. It generally contains an extensive review of the literature, as well as the results
of a number of experiments, all aimed at testing a unifying hypothesis. Some of the material may
already have been published in a series of research papers during the course of the research.6. Books and book chapters: The book chapter is a synthesis of knowledge and information about
a particular subject. It rarely has a fundamental hypothesis. It is more likely to form one part of an
overall contents list that, taken together, exhaustively describes a clearly defined aspect of one
field of science.7. Annual reports: Annual reports contain straightforward descriptions of work that has been
done during a year or 12-month period. The intention is not so much to prove a hypothesis, rather
to describe activities, justify budget expenditure in terms of research undertaken, and
demonstrates impact to attract more funding. The traditional approach to annual reports was to
describe all activities of all the programmes of an institution. This approach is useful to give an
overall idea of the institution’s work, and to form a historical record. However, such reports can be
long and very detailed. There is a tendency more recently for annual reports to concentrate on
one aspect of the institution’s work, or to select the areas of work that have had most impact.8. Working papers: A working paper or technical report may be a preliminary report of a piece of
research that is interesting, but suitable or intended for peer-reviewed publication. In many cases,
a working paper can be developed later, with the addition of more material, into a scientific paper.
Often authors may release working papers to share ideas about a topic or to elicit feedback before
submitting to a peer-reviewed conference or academic journal.9. Newsletters: The purpose of a newsletter is to communicate quickly facts that are of interest to
its readers. Thus the content of any contribution is basically factual, with little emphasis on
justification or methodology. Usually having a more general readership, newsletters should never
be regarded a substitute for the true publication of research results.10. Project proposals and reports: A project proposal represents the justification for a programme
of work, with the aim of producing measurable outputs that will demonstrably reach a clearly
defined objective. Like a research paper, it starts out with a hypothesis that has led to a proposed
course of action and a programme of research designed to test the concept.11. Websites: Most research institutions now have a website, where they present their most upto-date or significant results, describe the institution and its programmes of research, and list its
staff. Often there is a list of publications, with some sites offering the possibility of downloading
copies of institutional publications, working papers, etc. Websites have a potentially huge
audience with different levels of expertise, and so offer scientists an opportunity to publicize the
results and impact of their research to groups of people different from the usual scientists.12. Blogs and discussion groups: A blog (a contraction of the term ‘web log’) is a type of website,
usually maintained by an individual, with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or
other material such as graphics or video. Blogs are personal, representing the views of the writer,
and so offer scientists a chance to put forward their own ideas, free of the constraints of the
institution they are working within. Discussion groups are electronic meeting places, where groups
of people with a common interest can share their views in a continuing discussion.BIBLIOGRAPHY – Definition1. A complete or selective list of works compiled upon some common principle, as authorship,
subject, place of publication, or printer.
2. A list of source materials that are used or consulted in the preparation of a work or that are
referred to in the text.
3. A branch of library science dealing with the history, physical description, comparison, and
classification of books and other works.References: Why Helps readers to refer to cited materials Readers can get information for their own research or other purposes Readers, reviewers, and editors can check the author’s use of the cited materialsThree Main Systems
A. Harvard System (author-year or name & year system)
Ex: Rice cultivation may be the largest anthropogenic source of CH4 emission (Hogan et al., 1991).B. Alphabet-Number System (Vancouver system)
Ex: Hogan et al. (7) reported that rice cultivation may be the largest anthropogenic source of
methane emission.C. Citation Order System (Numbering references as they appear)
Ex: Rice cultivation may be the largest anthropogenic source of CH4 emission (1).
Writing Science for Non-SpecialistsV. BalasubramanianWho are they?• Extension and development staff• Farmers• Business people• News media• General public• Policy makers• Donors• Teachers, students• Children• Visitors
Where do they Spend Time?• Their Profile?• Why Publications for Non-specialistsScientists vs.Non-specialists• Scientists: generally good in conveying their ideas to their peers• Non-specialists cannot understand, but many also don’t want to know much of the
specialist’s writing• Difficult, but not impossible to communicate with non-specialists• Communication specialists can help you develop effective communications for nonspecialistsWriting for Non-specialists• Keep It Simple and Short (KISS)– Simple words: plain, familiar, easy-to-recognize words– Simple, short sentences: one sentence, one thought– Short paragraphs: one paragraph, one idea• Make It Interesting (MII)– Interesting, attractive to readersEffective communication to Non-specialists• Audience• A clear message• Visuals to enhance/support the message• AttractiveAudience• Who are your readers?• Difficult to reach all kinds of non-specialists with a single publication
for a message
• Three types of materials for students, extension staff, farmers• What do they know already?• Most difficult to find out what your audience know already
- Dry your rice in the sun! (Anything new?)
- A better way to dry your rice in the sun!• Explain cause and effect for certain messages• Message• A clear message: know clearly what is to be communicated• Remember the message and purpose all the time when developing the materialsMessage: How Much to Give• Not necessary to explain everything to non-specialists• Give only the key points they need to know• Explain why the message is important to them• Show how they can benefit from the knowledgeMessage: Information• Too much info: boring or repelling• Too little info: poor communication• Enough info: interesting, educative, or convincingMessage: Info Overloading• Info is a lot like food- too big a bite is hard to swallow
- small bites are easier to chew and absorb• Large documents: books, booklets, journals, articles• Short documents: leaflets, pamphlets, posters, pocket guides• A large book or a series short pamphlets?
Message: Visual Support• Select appropriate visuals• Use them to enhance your message• Attractive visuals draw readers’ attention to the messageMessage: Interesting and Attractive• Effective communication
- looks interesting and is attractive to readers
- explains why the message is important
- shows how it can help or benefit readers• Select forms and designs attractive to target readers
- a one-page formal briefing for a policy-maker
- a comic book format for extension publications
- a drama format for radio broadcasts (edutainment)Message: Easy to Understand
• Language- Local language: Extension posters for farmers
- National language: National technical reports
- English: Int. publications• Words- Use common words that readers understand easily• Style
- A simple, friendly, conversational style• Vocabulary- Select words that are easy to recognize, understand
- Use local units of measurementMessage: Informative or Emotional?• Words carry subtle emotion: use them carefully• A message with some emotion is more effective than a pure informative message• Cultural: avoid sensitive or offensive words• Social: avoid socially unacceptable wordsMessage: Appropriateness• Field test the draft publication with a sample of intended readers• Revise or modify based on feedback from field testing• Audience response to previous publications
- Poor response: why?
- Good response: why?Help Non-specialists Understand
| • | Effective words: Choose plain, specific, familiar, direct words that fit the readers’ level of education |
– interesting or unusual design– powerful or attractive illustration– interesting title– effective opening paragraph: strong openings are valuable in newsletters, extension
leaflets, policy briefings• Appeal to readers’ basic interests– more income, more food for family, better health & fitness, less work and more
leisure, more prestige• Appeal to readers’ curiosity– about other people, the world around them, or problems or unexpected events
that affect them• Make an effective opening– The first words are crucial to attract readers’ attention– Use a picture, an anecdote, a question, a quotation, a background, a stunning
contrast, or a surprise related to the main message– Delete weak openings• Make sure the opening is supported by the facts
Making Effective Title• Read the document, understand well, search for the most important idea for use in title• Use the main message in one short, interesting sentence/phrase as title• Introduce variety in titles• Revise the title until it is sharp and striking• Check the title is correct with a clear meaning• Use upper and lower case in title for greater readabilityNon-specialists: Types of Publications• Manuals for teachers or extension staff• Popular magazines• Newsletters• Folders/Leaflets/Pamphlets• Posters• Comic books• Press releases & Interviews• Popular articles for newspapers• Talks on radio or TV• On-line articles or extension videosWriting for Non-specialists
Newsletters• Published by research institutions to– convey information to readers
– promote the public image of the organization• It is more informal and more personal meant for chosen clients• Generally 4 to 16 pages long (size A4)• It gives normally positive informationPlanning a Newsletter• Establish the editorial purpose and policy– goals, intended readers, language, nature of contents– editorial control (by editor or head of institution)– frequency of publication, size and number of pages, size of circulation, methods of
distribution, and schedules• Make sure the plan of the newsletter is accepted and approved by the management and
the board• Develop an advisory board for consultation• Make a budget estimate and secure funds• Define the role and responsibilities of the editorPrepare a distribution plan with a mailing list:• Scientists, extension staff, university staff & students• Visitors, business people• Newspaper, radio, TV• Related national and international organizations• Policymakers• Funding agencies• Board of trustees• Documentation centers• Bookstores• Design: a layout for each issue or a standard layout• Review to measure successes– annual membership survey– mechanism for feedback– order forms for publications– registration forms for conferences– job openings– ad space– letters to editor– contests, games– local news itemsEditing a Newsletter• A good newsletter is like a small magazine• Edit (for non-specialists) to maintain quality and appeal to readers
• Showcase the institute’s activities and all personalities (not the head only) who make the
institution great• Interact with scientists and collaborators, visit field experiments and farmers’ days to find
interesting stories to report• Create a unique personality for the newsletter with interesting varieties in each issue• Plan and cover events in advance• Have a stockpile of “insurance” materials to replace a planned story not arrived on time• Edit tightly and print short, interesting articles• Report only the most important points of speeches or press releases• Interview personalities and report• Use photographs for effect (photo of the week)• Introduce humor to attract readers• Provide basic info: Name & address of the institution & editor, frequency of publication,
issue # & date, etc.Interviewing• A good interview is a friendly conversation• Do the homework– Tell in advance to the person what is to be discussed, why it is important, & how it
will be used– Arrange the meeting in advance– Do background research to ask right questions and to avoid errors– Prepare a list of topics or questions in advance to control the interview• Don’t ask questions– that elicit “yes” or “no” answer– on things that you should know (name of person)– that are too general or too long• Ask questions to get the person talk on issues• Organize questions in a logical way for easy flow of conversation• GOSS: Goals, Obstacles, Solutions, StartAt the Interview• Arrive on time and dress appropriately• Be relaxed and friendly• Start with easy questions to get the person talking freely• Listen: Don’t talk more than necessary, don’t interrupt, don’t argue• Encourage the person to talk: nod your head, agree, smile, laugh only when appropriate• Keep a friendly eye contact• Allow passes for the person to say something more• Probe more with follow-up questions until you get the info you want• Look for examples or analogies and ask for them
• Be alert and pursue the topic to get new info• Make discreet notes and write down good quotes• Use tape recorder only when needed to record exact quotations or if the subject is
controversial• At the end:– Ask if the person wants to talk about anything else– At the end of the allotted time, offer to leave even if you’re not finished. The
person may agree to continue talkingAfter the Interview• Read your notes at once, and expand them for reporting• Write the story ASAP (when everything is fresh)• Use quotations carefully– As a signpost for change– To emphasize a point– To express judgment on an issue– To enhance your report• Check the facts carefully, and if necessary with the person interviewedFolders(Pamphlets, Brochures)• A single-sheet publication folded 2 to 4 times• An effective folder is– Personal: directed to one reader– Focused: limited to one clear message– Attractive to capture readers’ attention– Simple: easy to understand at a single reading– Concise: to the point, and no irrelevant ideas– Instructive: clear on what action to take• Make each panel an effective unit on its own• Make the cover panel attractive to lure readers• First panel: Start by showing how the message can help people• Make the title attractive and compelling to read: e.g. “Reduce your cost and increase your
profit”• Use font size 36 or larger for title• Use an attractive illustration, preferably people doing something• Later panels: Continue providing related info to the readers’ interest– About the institution, people, work, etc.– One panel with address for returning with required info• Don’t crowd the folder and leave some space empty• Use headlines or symbols to break up the text• Include one or two illustrations to add impact
• Repeat the main message at the end to reinforce action• Give the contact address with Tel # and e-mail• Add the date of printing of the folder in a cornerExtension Posters• A piece of paper or cardboard with only a few words, with or w/o an illustration• It conveys a quick simple message to an audience• It is mounted in a right place for repeated viewing by an intended audience• Advantages:– A good poster at the right place commands attention– Presents its message over and over every day– Reinforces other messages in a communication program– Reaches large and small, specialized and general audience– Can be replaced easily with a new message when needed• Make message brief, direct, and in large type for easy viewing & quick absorption• Simplest, most effective posters encourage action:– “Fight drugs”; “Stop smoking”; “Beware of children”• Inspirational or “image” posters are a waste of money• Posters with more words– Put in places where people sit or stand around– Still the message may be read fully, but not be absorbed• One short, simple message in large type: a call to action• An element of surprise to catch attention• A simple illustration to attract the eye to the message• The name of the sponsoring organization• Lots of empty spaces, clustered posters loose attention• Strong colors• An additional brief message supporting the main messageExtension Poster: Planning• Decide on the purpose, include the call to action• Types: a simple, short message or a message with many words (no in-between type)• Consider readers’ educational level, age, location, numbers• Large type and large illustration for easy viewing from 5 m away• Use few, simple, plain words: Don’t put words on a picture• A simple, familiar & colorful illustration to reinforce the message– red light for danger; a dramatic close up of people, avoid scenery; strong color or
B&W combinationExtension Posters: How?• Make sketch of the proposed layout• Cut pieces of colored paper the size and shapes of text box and illustration
– move them around until you get a satisfactory arrangement• Make sure the reader’s eye will move easily from one element to another• Keep it simpleExtension Posters: Placement• In many different locations - frequent viewing• At eye level• Where there is clear space• Where the light is good• Where many people pass or gather• Where material is changed often enough to encourage people to look at it frequently• Change posters every few weeks• Get feedback and act on it to improvePress Releases• PA produces press releases for media• Too many releases: media resistance• Make interesting releases• Types:– A feature on an ongoing activity, not time-bound– News on specific event for timely publication• Good headline for each story• Attractive first sentence to capture reader’s attention• Get to the point right away to give the news• First paragraph– Who? What? Where? When? & How?– Main facts of the story or summaryPress Releases: Tips for Writing• Important facts first, then details later– if cut from the bottom, you don’t loose facts• Find a local angle for your story– preferred by local media• Be accurate• Try to be objective and keep to facts– no praise or flattering• Short sentences & short paragraphs• Supply photographs if neededPress Releases: Writing Format• Double-spaced with wide margins• Make it clear the doc is a release• Include the contact address and Tel #
• Date for news release: “For immediate release”• Identify each page with a page # and a short identifying phrase• Size: Limit to two typed pages– If more space is needed, consider a separate “Background” release, tied to the main
release• Get media editor’s feedback to improve further
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